Rapid Onset of Neuromuscular Paralysis or Weakness.

The focus of this narrative review is the differential diagnosis of disease involving the peripheral or lower motor neuron component of the neurology of breathing. The clinical context is limited to those conditions leading to admission to the intensive care unit with a time course often described as acute or of rapid onset, meaning within days to weeks. However, the article also reviews those underlying inherited or congenital conditions that may have gone unnoticed until fulminant deterioration with respiratory failure.

Prevalence of burnout in pediatric intensivists: an observational comparison with general pediatricians.

OBJECTIVE: To study the prevalence of burnout in general pediatricians and pediatric intensivists and to evaluate factors that may be associated with this syndrome. DESIGN: Observational cohort study. SETTING: Pediatric departments of two hospitals in south Brazil. PATIENTS: Pediatric intensivists working in two regional PICUs and general pediatricians working in the outpatient departments in the same hospitals. INTERVENTION: Two researchers, blinded to the workplace of the physicians, undertook the assessment of burnout using the Maslach Burnout Inventory scale. Burnout was defined as high score in the domains for "emotional exhaustion" or "depersonalization" or a low score in the "professional accomplishment" domain. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The PICU and general pediatrician groups were similar demographically, and each had 35 recruits. Burnout was present in 50% of the study recruits and was more frequent among pediatric intensivists than general pediatricians (71% vs 29%, respectively, p < 0.01). In regard to the individual Maslach Burnout Inventory domains, the average score was higher for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization and lower for professional accomplishment in the PICU group (p < 0.01). A cluster analysis showed that pediatric intensivists were more likely to develop the burnout syndrome involving all Maslach Burnout Inventory domains. The multivariate analysis found that the odds ratio for burnout in pediatric intensivists was 5.7 (95% CI, 1.9-16.7; p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Burnout is frequent among pediatric intensivists and characterized by cumulative involvement of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and professional accomplishment. Earlier recognition of emotional exhaustion may be important in preventing the development of a complete burnout syndrome. Improvement in workplace characteristics and measures to improve physician resilience are entirely warranted.

Prospective operationalization and feasibility of a glycemic control protocol in critically ill children.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility and safe operationalization of a pediatric glycemic control protocol in the setting of a general pediatric intensive care unit in a developing country. DESIGN: Prospective, observational cohort study carried out over 12 months. SETTING: Fourteen-bed pediatric intensive care unit in Brazil. PATIENTS: Children requiring mechanical ventilation with at least one organ system dysfunction were included. INTERVENTIONS: Glucose was monitored and insulin used for persistent hyperglycemia (glucose >140 mg/dL [7.8 mmol/L] for at least two observations separated by at least a 1-hr interval), with a target glucose during insulin use of 60-140 mg/dL (3.3-7.8 mmol/L). RESULTS: Out of 410 admissions, 144 children met the criteria for applying the protocol. One hundred fourteen of 144 (79%) children had at least one peak glucose level that was hyperglycemic, but only 44 (31%) children required insulin. Insulin infusion was most frequently started on day 1 (61%), with a glucose level at the time of 229 ± 79 mg/dL (12.7 ± 4.4 mmol/L). The mean glucose level after 6 hrs of insulin was 172 ± 87 mg/dL (9.6 ± 4.8 mmol/L), and the time to achieve the target glucose range was 9.5 (2-20) hrs (median [interquartile range]). The overall duration of insulin was 24.5 (10-48) hrs, and the average dose required was 0.06 ± 0.03 U/kg/hr. In the whole series, the peak glucose level was 202 ± 93 mg/dL (11.2 ± 5.2 mmol/L), with no difference between survivors and nonsurvivors. There was no difference in mortality when different glucose bands were considered and no association between glucose level and mortality. The overall rate of hypoglycemia (glucose <40 mg/dL [2.2 mmol/L]) was 8.3%, and it was more common in those receiving insulin (20% vs. 3%, p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: Hyperglycemia is frequent in critically ill children managed in a pediatric intensive care unit in a developing country. Using a glycemic control protocol, one-third of these children required insulin, but attendants should be aware of a significant risk of hypoglycemia in this setting. Based on these data, a trial to detect a 20% relative reduction in mortality (power 90%, p = .05) associated with insulin in a similar population would need to screen >10,000 patients.

Pilot safety study of low-dose vasopressin in non-septic critically ill children.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the safety of low-dose vasopressin infusion in critically ill children requiring prolonged mechanical ventilation (MV) at risk of developing sedation/analgesia-related hypotension. METHOD: Randomized pilot safety study in children expected to require MV for at least 3 days. Children received either vasopressin (0.0005 U/kg/min) or sodium chloride (0.9%) infusion for a period of 48 h. Haemodynamic variables, urine output and serum electrolytes were closely monitored and analyzed. RESULTS: Twelve children in each group had similar baseline characteristics. Vasopressin infusion was associated with an 8 mmol/L fall in serum sodium concentration (p < 0.01) and with higher incidence of hyponatraemia (8 vs. 66%, p < 0.01). In normotensive children, low-dose vasopressin also induced a reversible decrease in urine output, and acutely increased blood pressure (p < 0.01). After stopping the vasopressin there was rebound hypotension (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Low-dose vasopressin infusion in haemodynamically stable, but critically ill, children is associated with reduction in urine output and decreased serum sodium level, yielding a high incidence of hyponatraemia. We conclude that these effects limit further study of prophylactic vasopressin for sedation-related hypotension in a randomized controlled trial.

Glycemic control and insulin therapy in sepsis and critical illness.

OBJECTIVE: To review the literature about the pathophysiology of hyperglycemia and glycemic control in children and adults with sepsis and critical illness. SOURCES: Non-systematic survey of the medical literature using MEDLINE and terms hyperglycemia, glycemic control, intensive insulin therapy, sepsis and intensive care. Articles were selected according to their relevance based on the authors' opinion. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: Hyperglycemia is frequent in critically ill children and it is associated with worsened outcome. In adults, there is no consensus on the efficacy and safety of glycemic control. We describe the possible mechanisms involved in glucose toxicity and the beneficial effects of glycemic control. Initial studies showed that use of insulin to achieve glycemic control reduced morbidity and mortality in adult intensive care; however, recent studies have failed to confirm these findings. Importantly, it is evident that glycemic control is associated with increased incidence of hypoglycemia. The efficacy of glycemic control has not yet been studied in critically ill children. CONCLUSION: Glycemic control is a novel therapeutic option in critical care. Conflicting evidence in adults means that before we apply this approach to pediatrics it will need to be assessed in clinical trial.

Ferritin levels in children with severe sepsis and septic shock.

AIM: To evaluate serum ferritin level in children with severe sepsis and septic shock and its association with mortality. METHOD: A cohort study of 36 children aged 1 month-16 years with severe sepsis or septic shock requiring intensive care was conducted. Serum ferritin levels were measured at the time of diagnosis of sepsis and a ferritin index (FI=observed serum ferritin divided by the upper limit of normal ferritin for age and gender) was calculated. RESULTS: The median age (range) of the children was 6 (2-100) months. Ferritin was <200 ng/mL in 13 children, 200-500 ng/mL in 11 children and >500 ng/mL in 12 children. The mortality associated with these groups was 23%, 9% and 58%, respectively. A ferritin>500 ng/mL was associated with a 3.2 (1.3-7.9) relative risk of death (p=0.01). FI of 1.7 was the best cutoff value for identifying those who died. In a logistic regression analysis, ferritin level and PRISM were independently associated with mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Ferritin is raised in children with septic shock and high ferritin level is associated with poorer outcome.

Controle glicêmico e terapia insulínica em sepse e doença crítica / Glycemic control and insulin therapy in sepsis and critical illness

OBJETIVO: Revisar a literatura sobre a fisiopatologia de hiperglicemia e controle glicêmico em crianças e adultos com sepse e doença crítica. FONTES DE DADOS: Pesquisa não sistemática da literatura médica através da base de dados MEDLINE usando os termos hiperglicemia, controle glicêmico, terapia insulínica intensiva, sepse e terapia intensiva. Os artigos foram selecionados de acordo com sua relevância, conforme a opinião dos autores. SÍNTESE DOS DADOS: A hiperglicemia é freqüente em crianças com doenças críticas e está associada a desfecho negativo. Em adultos, não há um consenso sobre a eficácia e segurança do controle glicêmico. Descrevemos os possíveis mecanismos envolvidos em toxicidade da glicose e os efeitos benéficos do controle glicêmico. Estudos iniciais demonstraram que o uso de insulina para atingir controle glicêmico reduziu a morbimortalidade em terapia intensiva em adultos; no entanto, estudos recentes não confirmaram esses achados. É importante destacar que o controle glicêmico está evidentemente associado a aumento da incidência de hipoglicemia. A eficácia do controle glicêmico ainda não foi estudada em crianças criticamente doentes. CONCLUSÃO: O controle glicêmico é uma nova opção terapêutica em terapia intensiva. Evidências conflitantes em adultos significam que, antes de aplicar esta abordagem em pediatria, é necessário avaliá-la em ensaio clínico.

OBJECTIVE:To review the literature about the pathophysiology of hyperglycemia and glycemic control in children and adults with sepsis and critical illness. SOURCES: Non-systematic survey of the medical literature using MEDLINE and terms hyperglycemia, glycemic control, intensive insulin therapy, sepsis and intensive care. Articles were selected according to their relevance based on the authors' opinion. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: Hyperglycemia is frequent in critically ill children and it is associated with worsened outcome. In adults, there is no consensus on the efficacy and safety of glycemic control. We describe the possible mechanisms involved in glucose toxicity and the beneficial effects of glycemic control. Initial studies showed that use of insulin to achieve glycemic control reduced morbidity and mortality in adult intensive care; however, recent studies have failed to confirm these findings. Importantly, it is evident that glycemic control is associated with increased incidence of hypoglycemia. The efficacy of glycemic control has not yet been studied in critically ill children. CONCLUSION: Glycemic control is a novel therapeutic option in critical care. Conflicting evidence in adults means that before we apply this approach to pediatrics it will need to be assessed in clinical trial.